Question 54·Hard·Form, Structure, and Sense
Although the early correspondence between mathematician Ada Lovelace and inventor Charles Babbage reveals an enthusiasm for a calculating machine, surviving drafts of Lovelace's notes make clear that the project, ______ by frequent design revisions and inadequate funding, advanced more slowly than either had expected.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
For this type of SAT question, first identify the core sentence and how the underlined or blanked portion fits into it—is it a main verb, modifier, or part of a phrase? Then look closely at the surrounding words (especially prepositions like "by" and nearby commas) to determine whether you need a participle, a full verb phrase, or a specific tense. Finally, plug each choice into the sentence and check quickly for tense consistency, grammatical completeness, and whether it matches the intended meaning and structure.
Hints
Look at the structure around the blank
Ignore the middle and read: "the project, ______ by frequent design revisions and inadequate funding, advanced more slowly..." Is the blank part of the main action, or is it describing the project?
Pay attention to the word immediately after the blank
The word "by" follows the blank. Think about what kind of verb form is usually used before "by" when something is being affected by something else.
Consider verb tense and completeness
The main action for the project is "advanced" (past). The word you choose must fit smoothly into the sentence without needing extra helping verbs like "was" or "had been."
Test each option in the sentence
Plug each choice into the sentence and read it out loud. Which ones sound incomplete or ungrammatical with "by frequent design revisions and inadequate funding"?
Step-by-step Explanation
Identify what the blank is doing in the sentence
Strip the sentence to its core:
"Surviving drafts of Lovelace's notes make clear that the project, ______ by frequent design revisions and inadequate funding, advanced more slowly than either had expected."
The blank is part of a phrase set off by commas that describes the project. It is not the main verb of the sentence, but a modifier giving extra information about the project.
Notice the word "by" after the blank
The word right after the blank is "by": "____ by frequent design revisions and inadequate funding".
When we see "by" after a verb form, it almost always signals a passive construction: something is/was done by something else.
So we want a form that can act like a passive adjective phrase, similar to "the project, damaged by delays" or "the project, slowed by errors".
Match the tense and structure of the sentence
The main clause about the project is "the project ... advanced more slowly." That event clearly describes something in the past.
The modifier in the blank should:
- Fit with "by" in a passive sense (the project is affected by revisions and funding)
- Work as a compressed form of "which was ___ by" (a past description)
This points us toward a past participle form used like an adjective, not a full tense with an auxiliary verb or a present-tense main verb.
Choose the verb form that fits: past participle passive modifier
Check the options:
- "hindering by" is not grammatical; "hindering" would need a direct object, not "by".
- "had hindered by" would need "been" ("had been hindered") and cannot act as this kind of modifier here.
- "hinders by" is present tense and also ungrammatical in this position.
Only "hindered" works as a past participle in a passive modifier: "the project, hindered by frequent design revisions and inadequate funding, advanced more slowly..." This is correct and follows Standard English conventions.